Over the past two decades, organised crime groups from the Western Balkans have firmly embedded themselves in South America’s cocaine trade, transforming into key players in the global narcotics market, says a new report from the Global Initiative for Transnational Organized Crime (GI-TOC). These groups have evolved from regional actors into international criminal enterprises by securing critical relationships at both the supply and distribution ends of the chain.

Their influence is evident in law enforcement operations. Investigations coordinated by Europol have linked nearly half of recent cocaine trafficking targets to Western Balkan networks.

Western Balkan now criminal groups control a transcontinental supply chain spanning South America to Europe and beyond, GI-TOC’s report said. Estimates suggest that 40-60% of their operations are now international, with drug trafficking as a core activity.

Their rise has been facilitated by two main factors: a surge in cocaine production across South America and consistently high demand in Europe

“Entrenchment [of these groups] in South America has transformed them from local players into major actors in the glob cocaine trafficking allowing them to procure large amounts of cocaine directly from producers and operate across multiple continents,” the report’s author Fatjona Mejdini, director of the South Eastern Europe Observatory at GI-TOC, told a webinar to present the report on April 1.

The GI-TOC report examines the evolution of these groups, tracing their deepening ties with South American criminal networks. Based on extensive interviews carried out on both sides of the Atlantic, it highlights their role in the global cocaine trade and the broader implications for organised crime in both regions.

Legacy of war

Beyond favourable conditions, these groups have also leveraged their smuggling expertise and combat experience from the conflicts of the 1990s. 

The roots of this criminal expansion lie in the Balkans' turbulent 1990s, marked by the collapse of communism, separatist wars and economic instability. Smuggling operations – initially focused on fuel, cigarettes, heroin and cannabis – flourished.

While heroin and cannabis were their primary focus, some Balkan criminals recognised the high profitability of cocaine. Early pioneers had experience in international drug trafficking, particularly in the US, and leveraged their networks to establish direct links with South American suppliers. This made the Balkans a critical transit region for cocaine shipments into Europe.

“The western Balkan region has always been a crossroads between Eastern and Western Europe and it has always been a key hub for various criminal activities,” said Mejdini. 

She added:“We know that the Balkans have gone through wars that left in the region some vulnerabilities like weak political and judicial systems … on the other hand, there [is] the experience that they have in tough environments and violence, so the wars in the Balkans have sharpened this group’s ability to use extreme violence to achieve their goals.” 

This history of tactics honed in violent conflict led to reputation for brutality that set Western Balkan criminal groups apart in the European underworld, and they have contributed to rising violence in South American countries. 

“The expanding footprint of the Western Balkans criminal groups in this continent [South America] is marked by a trail of blood. According to GI-TOC analysis, at least 19 people linked to cocaine trafficking from the Western Balkans have been killed in South America since 2010. The majority of these killings took place in Ecuador.” 

Decades of growth

Organised crime groups from the Western Balkans have been involved in global drug trafficking since the early 1990s. Rather than limiting themselves to street-level distribution in Europe, they sought greater profits by entering the wholesale trade, and forged direct ties with South America's cocaine networks. 

Several factors contributed to their rise. The Balkans’ strategic location made it a hub for organised crime, with profits from heroin trafficking, cannabis cultivation and smuggling operations funding their expansion. Additionally, lingering political instability and corruption provided safe havens and operational freedom.

By the early 2000s, Balkan criminals had embedded themselves in key Western European countries, leveraging diaspora networks to facilitate drug trafficking and strengthen their foothold in the cocaine trade.

Their breakthrough came in the early 2010s, driven by rising cocaine production and the fragmentation of criminal networks in South America.

An important player was Group America, a criminal organisation founded by Yugoslav emigrants in the US. Linked to multi-tonne cocaine seizures across multiple continents, it remains a dominant force despite the arrests of key figures.

Despite fluctuations in drug seizures, cocaine availability in Europe remains stable, with record detections at key EU ports, GI-TOC’s report says. Reports from Europol and the European Union Drugs Agency indicate that since 2016, cocaine traces in wastewater have been increasing annually.

Cocaine is Europe's second most-used drug, with 3.5mn EU adults consuming it in 2021. While prices remain stable, purity has risen due to increased secondary processing in Europe.

While Europe is their main market, operations of Western Balkan criminal groups operations extend beyond the continent. They have been connected to large cocaine shipments intercepted in North America, Africa and Australia. 

Well connected

Western Balkan brokers have cultivated strong connections with key actors in cocaine-producing countries such as Colombia, Peru and Bolivia, as well as with intermediaries in transit hubs such as Brazil and Ecuador. 

“Not only have they managed to navigate South America’s criminal environment with relative ease, but in some cases they have also proved able to forge relationships within high-level business and political circles in the countries where they operate,” the report says. 

“They have been present in region for many years but the way they operate made them go very low on the radar,” said Felipe Botero Escobar, head of GI-TOC’s Andean regional office. Western Balkan groups have also avoided territorial disputes that could have brought them into conflict with local groups. 

In addition, says Mejdidi, “Local producers in Peru and Ecuador prefer working with Western Balkan traffickers because they consider them reliable and they always pay in cash.” 

Contrary to common perception, the leaders of these groups rarely reside in South America. Instead, they operate from their home countries, major European cities, or relocate to places like the UAE if facing legal trouble. Their success hinges on skilled intermediaries who negotiate purchases and oversee logistics, according to GI-TOC’s report.

Some Western Balkan nationals running legitimate businesses in South America also play an important role in trafficking, particularly through import-export companies. These businesses help smuggle cocaine hidden among goods like fruit, coffee, and seafood destined for Europe.

Cocaine production grows

Cocaine production in Bolivia, Colombia and Peru surged from under 1,000 tonnes in 2014 to nearly 2,000 tonnes by 2020, fuelled by increased coca cultivation and improved processing techniques. Despite COVID-19 disruptions, production remains high. 

Another major change in recent years was the dissolution of major Colombian guerrilla factions allowed smaller groups to emerge, facilitating new alliances with Western Balkan traffickers.

“After 2016 with demobilisation of FARC FAA there has been a change in the cocaine landscape, not only locally but also globally,” said Escobar.

“FARC put aside their weapons and left a vacuum in places where cocaine is produced … this vacuum has been taken by local groups … FARC also operated as a broker and defined deals with international organised crime groups; this space was left open,” he added.

Another change is that Ecuador has become a hub for the cocaine trade, with Balkan groups using it for storage, processing and shipments. The UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reported a record 200 tonnes of cocaine seized there in 2021.

Transport methods 

Balkan criminal groups are responsible for smuggling massive quantities of cocaine to European ports, with Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain serving as key entry points. They also use Balkan ports as transit hubs for further distribution. This is revealed by the large-scale seizures at European ports, particularly in Southeast and Western European ports.

Maritime routes remain dominant for cocaine smuggling, with nearly 89% of seizures in 2021 linked to sea trafficking. Criminals use container ships, speedboats, fishing vessels, semi-submersibles and drones to move drugs across the Atlantic and Pacific. Key European entry points include Antwerp, Rotterdam, Algeciras, Valencia, Gioia Tauro and Hamburg, while Balkan ports such as Bar, Durres and Rijeka also play a role.

Container ships are preferred due to cost efficiency and low scrutiny, with only 2-3% of cargo inspected. Cocaine is often hidden among fruit shipments or in liquid form.

Banana shipments are a particularly common way for smugglers to dispatch cocaine to Europe. “One third of the bananas consumed in Europe are from Ecuador. This commercial expansion created an ideal platform for Balkan groups facilitating the shipment of cocaine hidden in banana containers,” aid Renato Rivera, researcher at GI-TOC, told the webinar. 

This trade has been helped by the signing of a free trade agreement (FTA) between Ecuador and the EU, said Rivera, arguing that FTAs are “an opportunity for crime organisations in a globalised world”. 

A precarious industry

The future of Western Balkan criminal groups in South America remains uncertain. Over the past two decades, they have entrenched themselves in the region, securing a stronghold in the lucrative cocaine trade. Their continued presence is tied to the ongoing expansion of cocaine production and the fragmentation of access to supply chains.

The instability in many South American countries has worked to their advantage, with corruption and weak security at ports facilitating their operations. Reducing their influence would require coordinated international efforts to curb cocaine production and address governance challenges.

However, these groups also face risks. As their role in the cocaine trade grows, tensions with rival criminal organisations – including local or Mexican groups – could escalate. If conflicts intensify, Balkan networks might struggle to maintain their foothold, according to the report. Similarly, stronger European criminal groups could challenge their dominance at the retail level.